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Research Article

Fungal Diversity and Dynamics during Grape Wine Fermentations with Different Sulfite Levels and Yeast Inoculations

Natacha Cureau, Renee Threlfall, Franck Carbonero, Luke Howard, Laura Lavefve
Am J Enol Vitic.  2021  72: 240-256  ; DOI: 10.5344/ajev.2021.20054

Article Figures & Data

Figures

  • Flow chart presenting the sulfite levels (0, 10, and 20 mg/L) and yeast inoculation types (uninoculated, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Torulaspora delbrueckii) added to Noble and Vignoles juices. Uni: uninoculated juice, S: S. cerevisiae-inoculated juice, T: T. delbrueckii-inoculated juice, [SO2]: 0, 10, and 20 mg/L of sulfur dioxide as potassium metabisulfite.
    Figure 1

    Flow chart presenting the sulfite levels (0, 10, and 20 mg/L) and yeast inoculation types (uninoculated, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Torulaspora delbrueckii) added to Noble and Vignoles juices. Uni: uninoculated juice, S: S. cerevisiae-inoculated juice, T: T. delbrueckii-inoculated juice, [SO2]: 0, 10, and 20 mg/L of sulfur dioxide as potassium metabisulfite.

  • Effects of sulfite levels (SO2: 0, 10, and 20 mg/L), yeast inoculation type (uninoculated, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Torulaspora delbrueckii), and fermentation time (0, 14, and 21 days) on total sugars, ethanol, and total organic acids in Arkansas-grown Noble juice/wine. Each standard error bar was constructed using 1 standard error from the mean. Means with different letters for each attribute are significantly different (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s honest significant difference test. Total sugars were calculated as the sum of glucose and fructose. Total organic acids were calculated as the sum of citric, tartaric, malic, succinic, lactic, and acetic acids.
    Figure 2

    Effects of sulfite levels (SO2: 0, 10, and 20 mg/L), yeast inoculation type (uninoculated, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Torulaspora delbrueckii), and fermentation time (0, 14, and 21 days) on total sugars, ethanol, and total organic acids in Arkansas-grown Noble juice/wine. Each standard error bar was constructed using 1 standard error from the mean. Means with different letters for each attribute are significantly different (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s honest significant difference test. Total sugars were calculated as the sum of glucose and fructose. Total organic acids were calculated as the sum of citric, tartaric, malic, succinic, lactic, and acetic acids.

  • Effects of sulfite levels (SO2 0, 10, and 20 mg/L), yeast inoculation types (uninoculated, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Torulaspora delbrueckii), and fermentation time (0, 14, and 21 days) on total sugars, ethanol, and total organic acids in Arkansas-grown Vignoles juice/wine. Each standard error bar was constructed using 1 standard error from the mean. Means with different letters for each attribute are significantly different (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s honest significant difference test. Total sugars were calculated as the sum of glucose and fructose. Total organic acids were calculated as the sum of citric, tartaric, malic, succinic, lactic, and acetic acids.
    Figure 3

    Effects of sulfite levels (SO2 0, 10, and 20 mg/L), yeast inoculation types (uninoculated, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Torulaspora delbrueckii), and fermentation time (0, 14, and 21 days) on total sugars, ethanol, and total organic acids in Arkansas-grown Vignoles juice/wine. Each standard error bar was constructed using 1 standard error from the mean. Means with different letters for each attribute are significantly different (p < 0.05) according to Tukey’s honest significant difference test. Total sugars were calculated as the sum of glucose and fructose. Total organic acids were calculated as the sum of citric, tartaric, malic, succinic, lactic, and acetic acids.

  • Shannon Diversity Indices of Arkansas-grown Noble (A) and Vignoles (B) juice/wine at day 0, 14, and 21 of fermentation. Uni: uninoculated juice, S. cer: Saccharomyces cerevisiae-inoculated juice, and T. del: Torulaspora delbrueckii-inoculated juice.
    Figure 4

    Shannon Diversity Indices of Arkansas-grown Noble (A) and Vignoles (B) juice/wine at day 0, 14, and 21 of fermentation. Uni: uninoculated juice, S. cer: Saccharomyces cerevisiae-inoculated juice, and T. del: Torulaspora delbrueckii-inoculated juice.

Tables

  • Table 1

    Compositiona (g/L) and five main fungi at day 21 of fermentation of Noble and Vignoles wines with different sulfite levels (0, 10, and 20 mg/L) and yeast inoculations types (uninoculated, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Torulaspora delbrueckii).

    Table 1
  • Table 2

    Relative abundance (>1%) at the genus level of fungi recovered in juice from Arkansas-grown Noble and Vignoles grapes prior to fermentation.

    Table 2
  • Table 3

    Relative abundance (>1%) at the genus level of fungi in juice/wine from Arkansas-grown Noble grapes during fermentation at 0, 14, and 21 days with different sulfite levels and yeast inoculation types.

    Table 3
  • Table 4

    Relative abundance (>1%) at the genus level of fungi in juice/wine from Arkansas-grown Vignoles grapes during fermentation at 0, 14, and 21 days with different sulfite levels and yeast inoculation types.

    Table 4

Additional Files

  • Supplemental Figure 1   Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) plots based on Bray-Curtis similarity index of the fungal community structures at the genus level of Noble juice/wine samples at day 0 (A), day 14 (B), and day 21 (C) of fermentation. Blue: uni (uninoculated juice), green: S. cer (Saccharomyces cerevisiae-inoculated juice), red: T. del (Torulaspora delbrueckii-inoculated juice), filled circle: NS (0 mg/L SO2), cross: S10 (10 mg/L SO2), open circle: S20 (20 mg/L SO2). One-way analysis of similarities based on Bray-Curtis similarity index, Bonferroni-corrected p values: p = 0.0001 for the three NMDS plots.

    Supplemental Figure 2   Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) plots based on Bray-Curtis similarity index of the fungal community structures at the genus level of Vignoles juice/wine samples at day 0 (A), day 14 (B), and day 21 (C) of fermentation. Blue: uni (uninoculated juice), green: S. cer (Saccharomyces cerevisiae-inoculated juice), red: T. del (Torulaspora delbrueckii-inoculated juice), filled circle: NS (0 mg/L SO2), cross: S10 (10 mg/L SO2), open circle: S20 (20 mg/L SO2). One-way analysis of similarities based on Bray-Curtis similarity index, Bonferroni-corrected p values: p = 0.0001 for the three NMDS plots.

    Supplemental Figure 3   Fungal community distribution at the phylum level (relative abundance >1%) recovered in Noble juice/wine at day 0 (A), day 14 (B), and day 21 (C) of fermentation. NS: 0 mg/L SO2, S10: 10 mg/L SO2, S20: 20 mg/L SO2, Uninoculated: Uninoculated juice, S. cerevisiae: Saccharomyces cerevisiae-inoculated juice, T. delbrueckii: Torulaspora delbrueckii-inoculated juice.

    Supplemental Figure 4   Fungal community distribution at the genus level (relative abundance >1%) recovered in uninoculated Noble juice/wine, Noble juice/wine inoculated with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Noble juice/wine inoculated with Torulaspora delbrueckii at day 0 (A), day 14 (B), and day 21 (C) of fermentation. NS: 0 mg/L SO2, S10: 10 mg/L SO2, S20: 20 mg/L SO2, Uninoculated: Uninoculated juice, S. cerevisiae: Saccharomyces cerevisiae-inoculated juice, T. delbrueckii: Torulaspora delbrueckii-inoculated juice. Where the assignment to the genus rank failed, the nearest taxonomic level with assignment was reported.

    Supplemental Figure 5   Fungal community distribution at the phylum level (relative abundance >1%) recovered in Vignoles juice/wine at day 0 (A), day 14 (B), and day 21 (C) of fermentation. NS: 0 mg/L SO2, S10: 10 mg/L SO2, S20: 20 mg/L SO2, Uninoculated: Uninoculated juice, S. cerevisiae: Saccharomyces cerevisiae-inoculated juice, T. delbrueckii: Torulaspora delbrueckii-inoculated juice.

    Supplemental Figure 6   Fungal community distribution at the genus level (relative abundance >1%) recovered in uninoculated Vignoles juice/wine, Vignoles juice/wine inoculated with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Vignoles juice/wine inoculated with Torulaspora delbrueckii at day 0 (A), day 14 (B), and day 21 (C) of fermentation. NS: 0 mg/L SO2, S10: 10 mg/L SO2, S20: 20 mg/L SO2, Uninoculated: Uninoculated juice, S. cerevisiae: Saccharomyces cerevisiae-inoculated juice, T. delbrueckii: Torulaspora delbrueckii-inoculated juice. Where the assignment to the genus rank failed, the nearest taxonomic level with assignment was reported.
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Fungal Diversity and Dynamics during Grape Wine Fermentations with Different Sulfite Levels and Yeast Inoculations
Natacha Cureau, Renee Threlfall, Franck Carbonero, Luke Howard, Laura Lavefve
Am J Enol Vitic.  2021  72: 240-256  ; DOI: 10.5344/ajev.2021.20054
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