Dynamics and diversity of non-Saccharomyces yeasts during the early stages in winemaking
Introduction
Yeasts live on berry surfaces throughout grape development. The population varies constantly in response to climatic conditions and the stage of ripening also plays a major role (Raspor et al., 2006). At harvest time, the yeast population is quite complex and the major fermenting yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is not very abundant. Indeed, research has demonstrated that only one grape per 1000 is S. cerevisiae positive (Mortimer and Polsinelli, 1999). Therefore, the non-Saccharomyces (NS) population is expected to be dominant in the early stages of grape must processing.
Numerous studies have evaluated the NS species present in the wine ecosystem and recent research has demonstrated the impact of grape conditions on NS populations (Fernandez et al., 1999, Raspor et al., 2006, González et al., 2007). Botrytis has been shown to alter species heterogeneity and succession (Greece) (Nisiotou et al., 2007) and the influence of ripeness on yeast dynamics and diversity has also been investigated (Hierro et al., 2006). A highly diverse yeast population, including Hanseniaspora (anamorph Kloeckera), Candida, Pichia, Metschnikowia, Kluyveromyces, and Issatchenkia is often described in the initial stages of winemaking (Mills et al., 2002, Di Maro et al., 2007).
Recently, there has been increasing interest in the industrial application of NS yeasts. Several studies have shown their capacities to contribute positive on wine flavour (Fleet, 2003, Esteve-Zarazoso et al., 1998) or evaluated the biotechnological interest of their enzymatic activities (Fernandez et al., 1999, Charoenchai et al., 1997). Mixed culture fermentations have also been assessed (Bely et al., 2008).
The impact of the oenological techniques applied on yeast development is assumed, but rarely described in the literature. Cold maceration (CM) of grape must is used in red wine production worldwide. It consists of keeping the must at a low temperature (not defined) for a certain time (not defined). CM has been shown to contribute positively to wine colour and produce more saturated wines (Gómez-Míguez et al., 2007). Colour enhancement has been reported for several red grape varieties (Marais, 2003, Villimburgo, 2003, Schödl, 2002). Higher monoterpene concentrations were also found in rosé wines following cold maceration (Salinas et al., 2003).
The microbial community present at the beginning of CM is thought to originate essentially from grapes (Ribereau-Gayon et al., 2006) but is assumed to be modified and influenced by the yeast community present on cellar surfaces (Mercado et al., 2007).
This study examines the yeast community in the ecological niche of wine, analysing the dynamics and diversity of the whole population during CM. Furthermore, the impact of the time of yeast addition and CM temperature on the yeast ecosystem was investigated. Species diversity was evaluated by PCR-ITS-RFLP and combined with the sequencing of specific regions to identify the species isolated.
Section snippets
Sampling — general dynamics and identity of yeasts present during CM
Musts from the 2005 and 2006 vintages in wineries I and II were used in the experiments. The vineyards are located in the Bordeaux region, 33 km apart. We studied NS and total yeast (TY) development during CM of several grape varieties (Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Cabernet Franc (results for Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc are not shown). CM temperature in both wineries was around 15 °C. Commercial yeasts were added (Zymaflore F10; CLIB 2014; 200 mg/L) to the must at the end of CM. To
General yeast dynamics and identity
We studied the development of the total yeast and NS populations during the CM and AF of different grape varieties, using selective (non-Saccharomyces yeast — NS) and non-selective (total yeast — TY) culture media. Two vintages and three different grape varieties were analysed at two wineries. The initial population of NS yeasts in all the samples studied varied between 104 and 105 CFU/mL, depending on the winery and vintage. No significant variations were detected between musts of grapes of
Discussion
Cold maceration prior to alcoholic fermentation is widely applied in red winemaking. The objective of this recently-developed technique is to improve wine aroma and colour. Nevertheless, the impact of CM on must microflora had not been widely described, nor had it previously been evaluated for the Bordeaux region. It is a major challenge in wine microbiology to obtain more information about yeast communities present during the various steps in winemaking, in order to evaluate their ability to
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Bordeaux Wine Council for financial support as well as Château Luchey Halde and Château Quinault for supplying must samples, as well as their kind cooperation.
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